Depth of Field Extension for Optical Tomography

ABSTRACT

An optical projection tomography system is illuminated with a light source. An object-containing tube, a portion of which is located within the region illuminated by the light source, contains an object of interest that has a feature of interest. A detector is located to receive emerging radiation from the object of interest. A lens, including optical field extension elements, is located in the optical path between the object region and the detector, such that light rays from multiple object planes in the object-containing tube simultaneously focus on the detector. The object-containing tube moves relatively to the detector and the lens operate to provide multiple views of the object region for producing an image of the feature of interest at each view.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to optical tomographic imaging systems in general, and, more particularly, to optical projection tomography, in which a small object, such as a biological cell, is positioned in a capillary tube for imaging by a microscope.

BACKGROUND

Advances in imaging biological cells using optical tomography have been developed by Nelson as disclosed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,522,775, issued Feb. 18, 2003, and entitled “Apparatus and method for imaging small objects in a flow stream using optical tomography,” the full disclosure of which is incorporated by reference. Further developments in the field are taught in Fauver et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/716,744, filed Nov. 18, 2003 and published as US Publication No. US-2004-0076319-A1 on Apr. 22, 2004, entitled “Method and apparatus of shadowgram formation for optical tomography,” (Fauver '744) and Fauver et al., U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/532,648, filed Sep. 18, 2006. entitled “Focal plane tracking for optical microtomography,” (Fauver '648) the full disclosures of which are also incorporated by reference.

Processing in such an optical tomography system begins with specimen preparation. Typically, specimens taken from a patient are received from a hospital or clinic and processed to remove non-diagnostic elements, fixed and then stained. Stained specimens are then mixed with an optical gel, inserted into a micro-capillary tube and images of objects, such as cells, in the specimen are produced using an optical tomography system. The resultant images comprise a set of extended depth of field images from differing perspectives called “pseudo-projection images.” The set of pseudo-projection images can be reconstructed using backprojection and filtering techniques to yield a 3D reconstruction of a cell of interest.

The 3D reconstruction then remains available for analysis in order to enable the quantification and the determination of the location of structures, molecules or molecular probes of interest. An object such as a biological cell may be labeled with at least one stain or tagged molecular probe, and the measured amount and location of this probe may yield important information about the disease state of the cell, including, but not limited to, various cancers such as lung, breast, prostate, cervical and ovarian cancers.

In Optical Projection Tomography Microscopy (OPTM) systems as described, for example, in Fauver '648, about 250 sample images taken over a 180-degree rotation are required to adequately sample the volume of a cell nucleus randomly distributed in a flow stream within a 50 micron capillary tube.

The present disclosure provides new and novel techniques for providing higher resolution and improved signal to noise ratio in order to reduce sampling requirements while maintaining acceptable resolution.

In one type of optical tomography system, as described in Fauver '744 and constructed by VisionGate, Inc., the depth of field of the imaging optics is extended by scanning an objective lens transverse to a capillary tube containing a specimen. A piezoelectric transducer (PZT) actuator transversely moves the objective lens sinusoidally several times per second in order to scan a series of focal planes though a specimen. By using a PZT actuator to move the objective lens, a focal plane moving through the specimen has its speed limited by inertia inherent in moving the objective lens mass rapidly along the optical axis through the specimen. Typically, an upper limit of the scan rate is roughly 60 cycles per second. With well-synchronized rotation and objective scanning, an image can be acquired on the down-stroke as well as the up-stroke of the PZT actuator, allowing up to 120 images per second to be acquired. While this is a useful acquisition rate, it can be significantly improved through the apparatus, systems and methods disclosed herein.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE

An optical projection tomography system is illuminated with a light source. An object-containing tube, a portion of which is located within the region illuminated by the light source, contains at least one object of interest that has at least one feature of interest. At least one detector is located to receive emerging radiation from the object of interest. A lens, including optical field extension elements, is located in the optical path between the object region and the detector, such that light rays from multiple object planes in the object-containing tube simultaneously focus on the at least one detector. The object-containing tube moves relatively to the at least one detector and the lens operate to provide multiple views of the object region for producing at least one image of the at least one feature of interest at each view.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 schematically shows an example of a design for a hyperchromatic optical lens system.

FIG. 2A-FIG.2D schematically show qualitative examples of simulated monochromatic modulation transfer functions (MTFs) for each of four wavelengths, as they might be evaluated at four separate image planes.

FIG. 3A-FIG. 3D schematically show qualitative examples of simulated polychromatic modulation transfer functions over a range of wavelengths, as they might be evaluated at four separate image planes.

FIG. 4A schematically shows a detail of the object space at one viewing angle in an optical tomography system incorporating a hyperchromatic optical lens.

FIG. 4B schematically shows the operation of the optical tomography system depicted schematically in FIG. 4A.

FIG. 4C schematically shows a detail of the object space at a second viewing angle in an optical tomography system incorporating a hyperchromatic optical lens.

FIG. 4D schematically shows the operation of the optical tomography system depicted schematically in FIG. 4C.

FIG. 5 schematically shows an example of a design for a chromatic filter array.

FIG. 6A schematically illustrates a first viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a chromatic filter array.

FIG. 6B schematically illustrates a first viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a chromatic filter array.

FIG. 7A schematically illustrates object space for a first viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field.

FIG. 7B schematically illustrates a first viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field.

FIG. 7C schematically illustrates the object space for a second viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field.

FIG. 7D schematically illustrates a second viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field.

FIG. 8A schematically illustrates a first viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating multiple detection paths.

FIG. 8B schematically illustrates a second viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating multiple detection paths.

FIG. 9 illustrates an example of focus invariance in an MTF range.

FIG. 10 shows a block diagram of a method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system.

FIG. 11A shows a block diagram of another method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system.

FIG. 11B shows a block diagram of yet another method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system.

FIG. 12 schematically depicts an embodiment of an autofocusing system using chromatic balance.

FIG. 13 shows another method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system, using two photo-diodes with spatial-frequency filtering.

FIG. 14 schematically shows a block diagram of a method for 2.5-D imaging in a focus-invariant optical tomography system.

FIG. 15 illustrates an example of a folded optical system allowing simultaneous imaging of two focal planes on a single camera.

FIG. 16 schematically illustrates a multiple-camera device for acquiring a range of focal planes in an optical tomography system.

FIG. 17 illustrates a schematic diagram of an OPTM system including wavefront coded optics.

In the drawings, identical reference numbers identify similar elements or components. The sizes and relative positions of elements in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale. For example, the shapes of various elements and angles are not drawn to scale, and some of these elements are arbitrarily enlarged and positioned to improve drawing legibility. Further, the particular shapes of the elements as drawn, are not intended to convey any information regarding the actual shape of the particular elements, and have been solely selected for ease of recognition in the drawings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The following disclosure describes several embodiments and systems for imaging an object of interest. Several features of methods and systems in accordance with example embodiments of the invention are set forth and described in the Figures. It will be appreciated that methods and systems in accordance with other example embodiments of the invention can include additional procedures or features different than those shown in Figures. Example embodiments are described herein with respect to biological cells. However, it will be understood that these examples are for the purpose of illustrating the principals of the invention, and that the invention is not so limited.

Additionally, methods and systems in accordance with several example embodiments of the invention may not include all of the features shown in these Figures. Throughout the Figures, like reference numbers refer to similar or identical components or procedures.

Unless the context requires otherwise, throughout the specification and claims which follow, the word “comprise” and variations thereof, such as, “comprises” and “comprising” are to be construed in an open, inclusive sense that is as “including, but not limited to.”

Reference throughout this specification to “one example” or “an example embodiment,” “one embodiment,” “an embodiment” or various combinations of these terms means that a particular feature, structure or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

DEFINITIONS

Generally as used herein the following terms have the following meanings when used within the context of optical microscopy processes:

-   -   “Capillary tube” has its generally accepted meaning and is         intended to include transparent microcapillary tubes and         equivalent items with an inside diameter of 100 microns or less.     -   “Depth of field” is the length along the optical axis within         which the focal plane may be shifted before an unacceptable         image blur is produced.     -   “Object” means an individual cell or other entity.     -   “Pseudo-projection” includes a single image representing a         sampled volume of extent larger than the native depth of field         of the optics.     -   “Specimen” means a complete product obtained from a single test         or procedure from an individual patient (e.g., sputum submitted         for analysis, a biopsy, or a nasal swab). A specimen may be         composed of one or more objects. The result of the specimen         diagnosis becomes part of the case diagnosis.     -   “Sample” means a finished cellular preparation that is ready for         analysis, including all or part of an aliquot or specimen.

Chromatic Aberration Depth of Field Extension

Most simple lenses will produce wavelength-dependent focal positions known as chromatic focal shift. Chromatic aberrations are typically undesirable in a lens. However, for a sufficiently broad absorption spectrum in a biological sample, the dispersion of chromatic aberration can in effect extend the depth of field image of an absorptive object or feature.

Wavelength-dependent lens material will produce a lens with chromatic aberrations. Nearly all lens materials can have both positive and negative index shifts with wavelength. Lens designers typically choose lens materials to compensate for the chromatic focal plane shifts, resulting in a net chromatic focal shift near zero. For an example of an immersion microscope objective which is corrected for spherical and axial chromatic aberrations see U.S. Pat. No. 5,517,360 issued May 14, 1996 to T Suzuki, entitled “Immersion microscope objective.”

Changing the design parameters to emphasize, rather than minimize, the chromatic focal shift can create large chromatic, or hyperchromatic, aberrations in the optical path. Such hyperchromatic aberrations can simultaneously focus multiple focal depths on a detector, with each optical wavelength forming an image at the detector of a separate focal plane within the object. This widens the range of focal positions over a limited desired wavelength range. For a specimen with a narrow absorption peak in the stain or contrast agent, a lens can be designed to include optical field extension elements to extend the dispersion over many microns to form an extended depth of field optical system for a narrow range of wavelengths. The optical components and materials are chosen to optimize chromatic dispersion within the stain absorption range.

When employing chromatic aberration, it may be advantageous to alter the relative makeup of the spectral components to compensate for factors that may affect the composition of the image. These may include, but are not limited to, wavelength dependencies of the contrast agent or stain, the camera response, and transmission through the optical materials. The spectral composition may be altered by, for example, incorporating in the illumination, collection, and/or imaging optics a filter that attenuates some wavelengths more than others.

As an example, a limited extension of the depth of field can be achieved for a narrow range of wavelengths accommodating existing stain absorption curves, such as the hematoxylin family of stains. Stains in the hematoxylin family exhibit a peak absorption in the wavelength range from 550 to 620 nanometers.

EXAMPLE 1

One example of a hyperchromatic objective lens 103, suitable for use in a hyperchromatic system, is depicted in FIG. 1. This compound lens comprises eight optical elements 1-8 of which optical elements 1 and are cemented together to form a first doublet, and optical elements 3 and 4 are cemented together to form a second doublet, 5 and 6 are cemented together to form a third doublet, and 7 and 8 are cemented together to form a fourth doublet. The first surface of 1 is flat or slightly convex, so as to avoid trapping air in a cavity when this surface comes in contact with an immersion liquid such as oil or water. An example prescription for the objective 103 follows.

Material Front Radius Back Radius Center (Schott of Curvature of Curvature Thickness Element designation) (mm) (mm) (mm) 1 SF57 200 −3.17 3.54 LAK14 3.17 −5.92 5.08 Air — — 1 3 KZFSN4 104.5 −6.55 3.64 4 SF6 6.55 −13.77 1 Air — — 1 5 SF64 10.73 6.27 4.75 6 LASF40 −6.27 4.47 7.88 Air — — 2.24 7 SK2 7.23 −3.95 9.05 8 F2 3.95 19.37 8.83 The location of the aperture stop may be chosen to provide telecentricity, and to minimize lateral color (also known as chromatic difference of magnification). Component materials are commercially available from, for example, Schott North America, Inc. Elmsford, N.Y. 10523.

As shown in the examples described hereinbelow with reference to the figures, lens system 103, when placed in front of a tube lens having a focal length of 180 mm, will provide 60× magnification at numerical aperture (NA) equal to 0.9 over a wavelength range from 550 nm to 620 nm, provided that the space between the front surface of the first element 1 and the top of a cover slip positioned in the field of view of the lens is filled with water. The cover slip is typically about 130 microns thick, while the water-filled space between the cover slip and the lens may be about 200 microns thick. An object is focused on the imaging plane of the camera over a range of 15 microns at separate wavelengths over a 200-micron diameter field of view. In this example embodiment, the portion of the object in a first plane is focused by the 550-nm portion of the incident light a second plane located 5 microns below the first plane is focused by the 573-nm portion of the incident light, a third plane located 10 microns below the first plane is focused by the 597-nm portion of the incident light, and a fourth plane located 15 microns below the first plane is focused by the 620-nm portion of the incident light.

System MTFs

Referring now to FIG. 2A through FIG. 2D qualitative examples of simulated monochromatic modulation transfer functions (MTFs) for each of four wavelengths, as evaluated at four separate image planes. Throughout FIG. 2A-FIG. 3D the vertical axis represents system MTF and the horizontal axis represents frequency ranging from 0 to a cutoff frequency, fc, where fc is the highest frequency with a non-zero MTF. An MTF similar to the one shown in FIG. 2A could, in principle, be measured by placing a 2D optical test target in the object space, illuminating it with narrowband light having a wavelength of about 550 nm, and finding the best focus. Changing the wavelength to about 573 nm and moving the focal position by 5 microns may produce the MTF shown in FIG. 2B. Repeating this process for about 597 nm and again for about 620 nm yields the MTFs shown in FIG. 2C and FIG. 2D, respectively. The in-focus information from the entire volume of an object may be acquired simultaneously, for an object thickness up to 15 microns.

Referring now to FIG. 3A through FIG. 3D qualitative examples of simulated polychromatic modulation transfer functions (MTFs) are shown for an optical projection system where the illumination consists of a band of wavelengths between about 550 nm and 620 nm are shown. An MTF similar to the one shown in FIG. 3A could, in principle, be measured by placing a 2D optical test target in the object space, illuminating it with broadband light having a band of wavelengths in the range of about 550-620 nm, and finding the best focus, ΔZ=0. Moving the focal position by 5 microns to focus ΔZ=5 microns qualitatively yields the MTF shown in FIG. 3B. Moving the focal position by 10 microns, ΔZ=10 microns, and by 15 microns, ΔZ=15 microns, qualitatively yields the MTFs shown in FIG. 3C and FIG. 3D respectively. It is to be understood that other prescriptions and optical designs may be employed without departing from the spirit of this embodiment.

The hyperchromatic optical system may advantageously be incorporated into an OPTM system. A translation device, such as, for example, a piezoelectric transducer (PZT) may be used to apply a single, low-speed translation of the objective lens over the course of a 360-degree set of scans. The lens translation keeps the object of interest within a focus interval of about 15 microns, even while the tube rotation causes the object to translate along the optical axis by as much as the internal diameter of the rotating capillary during the 360-degree scan. In contrast to earlier embodiments, a high-speed scan taken at each perspective is no longer required. As a result, image acquisition speed is no longer limited by the speed of the PZT translation device. In addition, synchronization between the tube rotation and translation motion of the lens no longer needs to be as precise, thereby reducing the complexity of the OPTM instrument control system.

Now referring to FIG. 4A a detail of object space at one viewing angle in an optical tomography system incorporating a hyperchromatic optical lens is schematically shown. A cell 114 lies between a first object plane Z1 and a second object plane Z inside a microcapillary tube 107. The tube 107 may have, for example, an inner diameter of 50 microns, and the separation between the first object plane and the second object plane may be, for example, 15 microns. The microcapillary tube 107 is preferably filled with an optical matching medium 123 matching the internal index to the tube's index of refraction.

In one example embodiment, an assembly 121 preferably includes the microcapillary tube 107 placed in a viewing area between a first flat optical surface 120, which may comprise a standard microscope slide, and a second flat optical surface 108, which may comprise a standard microscope coverslip. The interstices between the tube 107 and the flat surfaces 108, 120 are filled with optical oil 124, or an equivalent, having an index of refraction that also substantially matches those of the tube 107, the flat surfaces 108, 120, and the optical gel 123. The assembly 121 can be mounted on a microscope, and an optical immersion fluid 109, comprising, for example, oil, water, or air, is placed on the side of the assembly 121 that faces hyperchromatic optics (as shown in FIG. 4B). The outer diameter of the tube 107 may be, for example about 250 microns, the thickness of the coverslip 108 may be about 170 microns, and the thickness of the immersion fluid 109 may be between about 100 and 300 microns.

Broadband light 130 having wavelengths between a first wavelength λ1 (e.g., λ1=about 550 nm) and a second wavelength λ2 (e.g., λ2=about 620 nm) is transmitted into the tube 107 by means of, for example, a condenser lens system. A first set of ray paths 105 of light having wavelength λ1 travel from the first object plane Z1 and into the immersion fluid 109. A second set of ray paths 106 of light having wavelength λ2 travel from the second object plane Z2 and into the immersion fluid 109. Although not depicted in FIG. 4A, it may be understood that light having wavelengths λn, where λn is a wavelength between λ1 and λ2, travel from intermediate object planes, Zn, located between the first object plane and the second object plane, along ray paths similar to 105 and 106.

With reference to FIG. 4B, the operation of this system may be more fully understood. A chromatic filter 110 and a condenser lens 115 provide illumination 130F having the desired upper and lower wavelength limits (λ1, λ2). The incident light passes through the tube assembly 121, containing, for example, a biological cell 114. The ray paths 105 and 106,106, having wavelengths λ1 and λ2 and beginning near the cell 114 at object planes Z1 and Z2, respectively, pass through the immersion fluid 109 and the hyperchromatic objective lens system 103, and are substantially collimated when they reach the tube lens 111. They then pass through the tube lens 111 which may, for example, have a focal length of about 180 mm, and achieve focus A on the image plane 104 of a CCD camera 112. The objective lens 103 is mounted on a PZT 113, which is capable of moving the objective 103 further from the tube lens 111 and closer to the object planes Z1 and Z2.

Light having a wavelength λn, where the λn wavelength is a wavelength having a value between λ1 and λ2, will travel from intermediate object planes, Zn, located between plane Z1 and plane Z2, along ray paths similar to 105 and 106, and also come to a focus on image plane 104. The wavelength of λn, relative to λ1 and λ2, determines where the intermediate object plane is located, relative to object planes Z1 and Z2, in order for it to be focused on image plane 104.

Now referring to FIG. 4C, the system of FIG. 4A is shown after the microcapillary tube 107 has rotated, causing the cell 114 to change its location and orientation as well. To compensate for this motion, the PZT 113 (as shown, for example in FIG. 4B) moves the objective lens 103 by an amount sufficient to cause the focused light on the image plane 104 to originate from the a second set of object planes Z3 and Z4, via ray path 118 from object plane Z3 for light of wavelength λ1, and via ray path 119 from object plane Z4 for light of wavelength λ2. Those skilled in the art and having the benefit of this disclosure will understand that light having varying wavelengths λn between λ1 and λ2 will travel from intermediate object planes, Zn, located between object planes Z3 and Z4 along ray paths between ray paths 118 and 119 will also come to a focus on image plane 104. The wavelengths λn, relative to λ1 and λ2, determines where object planes Zn must be located, relative to Z3 and Z4, in order for it to be focused on image plane 104. FIG. 4D shows the system detailed in FIG. 4C, in particular, illustrating that the PZT 113 has moved the objective 103 so that the focused image is shifted to focus B on image plane 104.

Those skilled in the art and having the benefit of this disclosure will appreciate that the system depicted in FIG. 4A-FIG. 4D allows the camera 112 to acquire an image similar to the defined pseudo-projection produced by scanning a well-corrected objective lens over the entire thickness of the cell 114 and further permits the acquisition of multiple pseudo-projections from multiple angles, without the necessity of moving the objective lens 103 at a high speed via high-frequency drive of the PZT scanning mechanism 113.

Another embodiment employs the hyperchromatic optical path described previously, having an aberration that produces focus over the thickness of the object (e.g., 15 microns) for wavelengths within the range of constant absorption by the stain. This embodiment further includes a Chromatic Filter Array (CFA) in the optical path, preferably located just before the image plane 104. The CFA may consist of two or more types of pixels, each pixel having a size corresponding to the pixel size of the camera 112 imaging surface 104. Each type of pixel passes a separate range of wavelengths. An example of a CFA, having much wider bandpass ranges than the one described as part of this invention, is the Bayer filter, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,081,277, “Method for making a solid-state color imaging device having an integral color filter and the device” issued on Mar. 28, 1978 to Brault, et al.

Referring now to FIG. 5, an example of a design for a chromatic filter array is schematically shown. CFA 201 includes a plurality of pixel types in a unit cell 202. In one example, the plurality of pixel types includes four pixel types 203, 204, 205, 206 included in the unit cell 202. The four pixel types pass only wavelengths, of 550-567 nm, 567-584 nm. 584-601 nm, and 601-618 nm, respectively. The CFA 201 must comprise a sufficient number of unit cells 202 to cover a substantial portion of the image surface 104. For example, if the image plane 104 comprises 900×1600 pixels, then the CFA 201 may advantageously comprise 450×800 unit cells 202, each unit cell 202 in turn comprising a 2×2 matrix of one each of filter pixel types 203, 204, 205, and 206. This design may limit the spatial resolution by a factor of two, due to the use of only one-fourth of the pixels for each wavelength. However, this is in practice not an issue, as long as the pixel-limited resolvable size (equivalent, with the CFA included, to 4*[pixel size]/magnification) is less than the desired optical resolution (in this example, 500 nm). Under typical conditions of camera pixel size=7.4 microns and magnification=60, this requirement is fulfilled. The light intensity reaching each CCD pixel in this embodiment is reduced by a factor of four due to the four-wavelength CFA. This reduction is also not a problem in practice, as the source intensity can be increased to provide higher light levels without requiring longer camera exposure times.

With reference jointly to FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B, another example of the operation of a hyperchromatic system incorporating a CFA 201 is illustrated. The system is similar to the one depicted in FIG. 4A and 4C, with the addition of the CFA 201 on the image surface 104 of the camera 201. Due to translation of the objective 103 along the optical axis of the system, the focus point shifts from focus point A′ in FIG. 6A to focus point B′ in FIG. 6B.

The inclusion of the CFA 201 makes it possible to separate the signals from two or more (in this example, four) focal ranges, thereby decreasing the amount of defocusing that contaminates the in-focus signal. By saving each focal range separately, they may be combined digitally during post-acquisition processing, permitting an increase in the dynamic range of the combined images, and consequently improving the spatial resolution and contrast of the combined images. Alternatively, the images that result from each wavelength can be processed as two or more separate sets of data, and not combined until after each has been separately tomographically reconstructed, thus providing an improvement in spatial resolution and contrast.

Referring now jointly to FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B, object space for a first viewing angle, Θ₁, for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field is schematically illustrated. The extended limits of the focal range, combined with the CFA 201, make a lens transducer, such as PZT 113, unnecessary for the operation of the system. Another pair of object planes Z5 and Z6 corresponds to wavelengths λ1 and λ2, respectively. The object planes are located at the extrema of the inner diameter of the microcapillary tube 107. Because object planes Z5 and Z6 are located at the extrema of the inner diameter of the microcapillary tube 107, the location of object planes Z5 and Z6 remain constant relative to the objective lens even as the tube 107 rotates, causing the cell 114 to change its location relatively to the objective lens. For a microcapillary tube 107 having an inner diameter of 50 microns, the separation between object planes Z5 and Z6 should, preferably, be at least 50 microns. The ray paths 405 and 406, comprising light of wavelengths λ1 and λ2, respectively, travel through object planes Z5 and Z6, respectively, and reach the CFA 201, where λ1 is transmitted only through, for example, CFA pixels of the first type 203, and λ2 is transmitted only through, for example, CFA pixels of the last type 206.

Owing to the existence of the multiple pixel types in the unit cell of the CFA, each pixel type only collects light from a portion of the interval between the object planes Z5 and Z6. For the four-color CFA 201 shown in FIG. 5 as described above, each interval is, preferably, non-overlapping, and therefore only one-fourth of the total interval is transmitted through any pixel type and collected by the camera 112.

As an example, if the focal plane separation is 50 microns, and the wavelength range is 550 to 618 nm, then camera pixels lying directly behind pixel type 203 will detect only light having wavelengths between 550 and 567 nm, corresponding to object planes between object plane Z5 and Z5+12.5. In a similar manner, camera pixels lying directly behind pixel type 204 will detect only light having wavelengths between 567 and 584 nm, corresponding to focal planes between object planes located between Z5+12.5 microns and Z5+25 microns. Camera pixels lying directly behind pixel type 205 will detect only light having wavelengths between 584 and 601 nm, corresponding to object planes between Z5+25 microns and Z5+37.5 microns; and camera pixels lying directly behind pixel type 206 will detect only light having wavelengths between 601 and 618 nm, corresponding to object planes between Z5+37.5 microns and Z6 (i.e.. Z5+50 microns).

Referring now to FIG. 7B, a first viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field is schematically illustrated. The components comprising the system are similar to those of FIG. 6B, except that a mechanical translator for the objective lens, such as a PZT, is no longer necessary. The ray paths 405 and 406 originate at opposite sides of the tube 205 and follow similar paths to the image sensor 104 at focus point A″. A CFA 201 is also shown, although it is optional in this embodiment.

Referring now to FIG. 7C, there schematically illustrated is the object space for a second viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field. Here the cell 144 is rotated to a second viewing angle Θ₂. Because the cell 114 is always within the boundaries of the extended depth of field (i.e., between planes Z5 and Z6), it is not necessary to employ a PZT to move the objective lens 103.

Referring now to FIG. 7D, a second viewing angle for a hyperchromatic optical tomography system incorporating a long depth of field is schematically illustrated showing the system detailed in FIG. 7C. In contrast to FIG. 7B, it should be noted that the focus of objective 103 has shifted to focus point B″ on image plane 104. A CFA 201 is also shown although it is optional in this embodiment.

Referring now to FIG. 8A, an example of multiple camera system where a capillary tube holding a specimen is at a first rotation angle is shown. A multiple camera system includes a chromatic filter 110 and a condenser lens 115, and a tube assembly 121, containing, for example, a biological cell 114 substantially as described hereinabove with reference to FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B. Ray paths beginning near the cell 114 at object planes Z1 and Z2, respectively, pass through the immersion fluid 109 and the hyperchromatic objective lens system 103. In a departure from the system described above with reference to FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B, the multiple camera system here incorporates a dichroic beamsplitter cube 501 to split a first plurality of ray paths 502 and 503. The first plurality of ray paths 502 and 503 originate in object planes similar to object planes Z1 and Z2. Each camera may optionally be filtered by a chromatic filter array 201, 508. In an alternate embodiment, a polarization filter array may be substituted for each chromatic filter array. If a wide depth of field is desired, then another embodiment, similar to this one, would employ CFAs 201 and 508 while eliminating the translational mechanism 113 for moving the objective lens similarly to other embodiments described above.

Referring now to FIG. 8B, an example of the multiple camera system of FIG. 8A where the capillary tube holding a specimen is at a second rotation angle is shown. Here the dichroic beamsplitter cube 501 splits a second plurality of ray paths 504 and 505. The second plurality of ray paths 504 and 505 originate in object planes similar to object planes Z3 and Z4.

Referring now jointly to FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B, the rays 502 and 504, being of the same wavelength, travel through the first tube lens 111 to the first camera 112. The rays 503 and 505, being of a wavelength different from rays 502 and 504, travel through the second tube lens 506 to the sensor area 509 of a second camera 507. Additional dichroic beamsplitters and cameras may be readily envisaged.

Focus Score

One characteristic of an OPTM system incorporating extended depth of field optics is that a fixed-focal plane image can no longer be acquired through the extended depth of field optical path. The focus quality of a flat object is retained over a wide range of focal positions. This property is sometimes referred to as focus invariance.

For an object that is not confined to a single focal plane it is still necessary to find the midpoint of the object of interest so that it may be kept within the focus interval throughout the data acquisition. One method of accomplishing this is to split the optical path prior to introducing the chromatic aberration, so that a separate optical path, incorporating a detector, is available. This separate optical path, being free of chromatic aberration, allows the system to acquire fixed-focal plane images. In a similar method that can be incorporated into a hyperchromatic imaging system, the optical path can be split and one arm chromatically filtered to near-monochromaticity, so that a single focal plane can be imaged by a separate camera, while the other arm provides the pseudo-projection. Another approach includes panning the objective lens over a wide range prior to beginning the scan, acquiring an image at each position, and assigning a focus score to each image. Focus scoring methods may employ autocorrelation, entropy, and/or other equivalent methods.

Referring now to FIG. 9, an example of focus invariance in an MTF range is illustrated. A focus-invariant range for the MTF at one spatial frequency, MTF (f1) 601 is bounded on the optical axis by an upper focal plane 602 and a lower focal plane 603. Within these boundaries the MTF 601 remains at a roughly constant plateau value before dropping down to a much lower level. Using such an approach, as described further below, the two end-points of the plateau 602, 603 in the MTF (f1) 601 can be identified, and the preferred focus chosen by, for example, the mid-point 604 between the end-points 602, 603.

Repetitive focus scoring is not necessary for a system having a depth of field exceeding the inner diameter of a microcapillary tube, provided that the upper and lower boundaries 602, 603 of the focus invariance region do not pass through the interior of the microcapillary tube. This condition can be verified by an initial focus scoring when the instrument is first configured.

Referring now to FIG. 10, a block diagram of an example method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system is schematically shown. According to the example method the midpoint is found and used to compute a 3D reconstruction of an object by:

-   -   1. panning through the optical axis and acquiring multiple         images of an object in a microcapillary tube while panning         (701);     -   2. evaluating the focus quality at each position along the         optical axis (702);     -   3. determining two break points on the optical axis where the         focus quality begins to degrade (703), where the two break         points correspond to the upper and lower boundaries 602, 603 of         the focus invariance region;     -   4. acquiring a pseudo-projection image (704), with the center of         the pseudo-projection's scanning range centered between the         upper and lower boundaries 602, 603 of the focus invariance         region;     -   5. rotating the microcapillary tube to a next projection angle;     -   6. repeating steps 1-5 until a plurality of pseudo-projections         have been acquired at a plurality of projection angles (705);     -   7. computing a 3D reconstruction using the acquired         pseudo-projections (706).

Referring now to FIG. 11A, a block diagram of another method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system is shown. According to this alternate example method the midpoint is found and used to compute a 3D reconstruction of an object by:

-   -   1. for a first viewing angle, acquiring pseudo-projections at a         plurality of focal planes 801 by stepping the focus (i.e. by         moving the objective lens a short distance represented by n=n+1,         where n is an incremental step) and acquiring pseudo-projection         data at each focal plane 813;     -   2. moving to a next viewing angle and repeating the acquisition         of pseudo-projections 801 until a target volume is covered by         stepping the focus as above 802;     -   3. summing all pseudo-projections for each viewing angle 803 to         produce a set of summed pseudo-projections; and     -   4. computing a 3D reconstruction using the set of summed         pseudo-projections 804.         In one example, pseudo-projections are acquired until the         following formula is met or exceeded at 802:

εnD=tube diam, where 0<ε<1.

Referring now to FIG. 11B shows a block diagram of yet another method for finding the midpoint of the focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system. According to this alternate example method the midpoint is found and used to compute a 3D reconstruction of an object by:

-   -   1. for a first viewing angle, acquiring pseudo-projections at a         plurality of focal planes 801 by stepping the focus (i.e. by         moving the objective lens a short distance represented by n=n+1,         where n is an incremental step) and acquiring pseudo-projection         data at each focal plane 813;     -   2. moving to a next viewing angle and repeating the acquisition         of pseudo-projections 801 until a target volume is covered 802         by stepping the focus as above 802 according to a limiting         formula;     -   4. performing a 2.5-D focus evaluation 805 to determine a best         focus pseudo-projection for each viewing angle; and     -   5. computing a 3D reconstruction using a set of best focus         pseudo-projections acquired at the best focus for each angle         806.         The method above is similar to that of FIG. 11A except for the         2.5-D focus evaluation.

Referring now to FIG. 12, an embodiment of an autofocusing system using chromatic balance is schematically shown. Here two autofocusing cameras 2002, 2004 provide digitized input to an image comparator 2006, which in turn provides a feedback signal 2008 to a transducer drive 2010, such as a PZT controller. As an object of interest 2001 is rotated within a microcapillary tube (as described above), separate images from an upper object volume 2012 and a lower object volume are captured by the autofocusing cameras 2002, 2004. The images are compared and analyzed by the comparator 2006. The feedback signal 2008 from the comparator 2006 drives the transducer drive 2010 which, in turn, controls an objective lens focus drive 2016 so that the focus range of an objective lens 2103 moves closer to the region of poorer focus quality. When the difference in focus quality between the two images becomes sufficiently small, the transducer drive is no longer required for shifting the focus range. This process can be repeated for each projection angle, which may be necessary as the planes containing the object of interest move up and down the optical axis as the tube rotates. Images are acquired by an image camera 2020.

In one embodiment, light rays are directed by a primary beam splitter 2028, a secondary beam splitter 2030 and a mirror 2032. Light rays directed to the image camera 2020 are filtered by a first filter 2022, where the first filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 620 nm through a first image forming lens 2023. Light rays directed to the first autofocusing camera 2002 are filtered by a second filter 2024, where the second filter passes light having wavelengths between 585 nm and 620 nm through a second imaging lens 2025. Light rays impinging mirror 2032 are directed to the second autofocusing camera 2004 after being filtered by a third filter 2026, where the third filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 585 nm through a third imaging lens 2027.

Referring now to FIG. 13, another embodiment of an autofocusing system using chromatic balance is schematically shown. A source of spectrally uniform light illumination 2060 illuminates an object of interest 2001 which is imaged by image camera 2020. Similarly to the autofocusing system described above, light rays are directed by a primary beam splitter 2028, a secondary beam splitter 2030 and a mirror 2032. Light rays directed to the image camera 2020 are filtered by a first filter 2022, where the first filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 620 nm through a first image forming lens 2023. A portion of light rays passing through the secondary beam splitter 2028 are filtered by a second filter 2024, where the second filter passes light having wavelengths between 585 nm and 620 nm. Light rays impinging mirror 2032 are filtered by a third filter 2026, where the third filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 585 nm. A first Fourier plane forming lens 2050 transmits light from the second filter 2024 through a first Fourier plane spatial filter 2052 to a first photo sensor 2054. A second Fourier plane forming lens 2056 transmits light from the third filter 2026 through a second Fourier plane spatial filter 2058 to a second photo sensor 2054.

The Fourier spatial filters 2052, 2058 operate on two focus paths to provide analog feedback to the focus control controller 2042 via the photo-diodes 2054. Spatial filtering ensures that the photodiodes only receive the high-spatial frequency components of a focal plane. High spatial frequency content is associated with well-focused objects. The high frequency content of the upper and lower halves of the focal range, 2012, 2014 respectively, is compared in signal conditioning and difference amplification processor 2062. The difference amplification processor 2062 provides output 2040 which is used as above to control drive 2042 to cause the transducer 2016 to position the objective lens 2103 until the high-frequency intensities of the two focal regions are sufficiently similar. Under continuous illumination this method has the advantage of tracking motion of an object keeping it in focus balance at all times.

Polarization-Dependent Optics (Birefringent) for 3D Imaging

The location of the focal plane is dependent on the polarization of the light. This system can be implemented using birefringent optics, in which the index of refraction varies according to the electric-field polarization of the optical wavefront. An example of a birefringent optical material is calcite (CaCO₃), for which the index of refraction at 590 nm is either 1.658 or 1.486, depending on the polarization.

Embodiments analogous to those of the hyperchromatic systems described above may be employed. With these techniques, the polarization of the imaged light will depend on the object focal plane from which it originated. For example, the horizontally-polarized (electric-field vector at zero degrees) component of the light may provide the in-focus image for an object plane Z_(H), whereas the vertically-polarized (electric-field vector at 90 degrees) component of the light may provide the in-focus image for an object plane Z_(V), located, for example, 15 microns closer to the detector than plane Z_(H). Light having polarizations between zero and 90 degrees would provide in-focus images for object planes between Z_(H) and Z_(V).

The polarization of the illuminating light can be varied over time by using a spinning polarizing filter, the collected (unpolarized) light passes through a polarizing filter before it reaches the image sensor, or the entire focal range can be collected simultaneously.

In one embodiment, the focal range may be comparable to the thickness of the object, e.g., 15 microns. In this embodiment, a PZT can be incorporated to compensate for rotation-induced translation of the cell, in a system analogous to that depicted in FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B.

In another embodiment, analogous to that depicted in FIG. 7A-FIG. 7D, the range of the focal planes can be equivalent to the diameter of the microcapillary tube (e.g., 50 microns), and a Polarization Filter Array (PFA; the polarization analog of the chromatic filter array illustrated in FIG. 5) is incorporated into the system in place of the CFA shown in FIG. 7A-FIG. 7D.

In yet another embodiment, the range of the focal planes can be equivalent to the diameter of the microcapillary tube, and the polarization of the light varied over time while a series of synchronized camera exposures acquires the object planes as they come into focus on the detector.

2.5-D Imaging

In any OPTM system incorporating extended depth of field optics, post-acquisition processing may be incorporated to perform pixel-by-pixel analysis to compute a mosaic of in-focus features in the field of view. An example of one type of 2.5-D imaging is found in R J Pieper and A Korpel, “Image processing for extended depth of field,” Applied Optics 22, 1449 (1983). The 2,5-D imaging approach may be most advantageously employed in those embodiments that make use of a Chromatic or Polarization Filter Array (CFA or PFA) and covering a wide focal range, and in the embodiments that make use of multiple camera exposures. In these systems, the weight assigned to an element type can vary from one pseudo-projection to the next, as the object is rotated through different focal plane regions.

To accomplish this, individual features are identified in the collection of short-focal-plane images that form an image stack. The same feature may appear in several images within the stack, but only a subset of those images will contain a well-focused representation of that feature.

Referring now to FIG. 14, a block diagram of a 2.5-D focusing method is schematically shown. Features, G_(i)=G₁, . . . G_(Ω) in an image stack S_(k) are identified 1101. For each feature G_(i) in an image stack S_(k), the images for which G_(i) is in best focus are identified 1102. A blank composite image PP_(k) is generated 1103. The pixels that make up that best-focused feature (X_(i), Y_(i), Z_(i)) are added to the composite image PP_(k) 1104. This process is repeated for all features (G₁, G₂ . . . G_(Ω)) until all features have been incorporated into PP_(k). Since a single feature may span two or more images in S_(k), a single pixel in PP_(k) may accumulate two or more intensity values, one for each image in S_(k) that contains a well-focused representation of G_(i). Furthermore, two or more features may share the same X-Y coordinates (but different Z-coordinates), which may result in some pixels in PP_(k) accumulate intensity values from two or more features. Note that subscripted letters l,k etc. represent index numbers.

The process is repeated for all the image stacks, until all image stacks (S₁, S₂ . . . S_(kmax)) have been analyzed and their associated composite images (PP₁, PP₂ . . . PP_(kmax)) have been computed 1105. The tomographic reconstruction can then be computed, using the set of PP_(k) as the input images 1106. In one example using this method, each 2×2 block of a 4-color CFA or PFA can be processed by selecting the single pixels containing the best focus, or as a weighted sum of two or more pixels.

Beam Split Multiple Focal Plane

There are several fundamental advantages of shorter integrated pseudo-projections for OPTM performance. First, smaller magnitude pseudo-projections (integrated optical axis scans) reduce the effect of the low frequency information dominating in the spatial spectrum. Second, adding more images that sample the same volume improves the signal to noise proportionally to the square root of the number of images used. Third, multiple images enable the detection and compensation for unusual hot spots in images due to refractive contrast.

The separation of the depth of field into segments allows many other depth of field extenders to work to supply a more limited solution, working better with less complication.

A reduced range of motion or an extended depth is possible with direct objective scan and multiple camera focal planes.

The creation of multiple focal ranges does not necessarily require multiple cameras. With adequate camera sensor area it is possible to merge the images and capture them on a single sensor. This can be done using a fiber optic faceplate splitting the sensor into zones, or a folded optical system merging the multiple images onto a single CCD.

Referring now to FIG. 15, an example of a folded system is depicted. The substantially collimated light exiting the objective 1205 is divided by a first dichroic beam-splitting cube 1206. One arm 1202 has a wavelength λ1 and originates in a first focal plane 1201. It passes through a first tube lens, through a second beam-splitter cube 1207, and onto the right half of the camera sensor's active area 1211. The other arm 1204 has a wavelength λ2 and originates in a second focal plane 1203. It reflects off two mirrors 1208, 1209, passes through the tube lens 1210, reflects within the second dichroic beam-splitter cube 1207, and onto the left half of the camera sensor's active area 1211. The two halves of the camera will acquire focused images having substantially identical magnifications, but originating from different focal planes 1201, 1203 in object space. The relative lateral shift in the images is achieved by laterally shifting the second dichroic beam-splitter cube 1207, so that the reflected light of the second arm 1204 is laterally shifted relative to the first arm 1202 and to the tube lens 1210.

Two-Stage Magnification

Acquiring images separated by 10 microns in object space would require, for a 100× lens, a difference in image-space path length proportional to magnification squared (i.e., 100 mm). If the tube lenses have the same focal lengths, but different back focal planes, then the two halves of the camera will acquire focused images having substantially identical magnifications, but originating from different focal planes in object space. As an illustration, placing the camera 100 mm closer to the second tube lens than to the first tube lens will result in a difference in focal planes of 100/M² microns, where M is the lateral magnification. If M=100, then 100/M²=10 microns.

However, a much more modest change in optical axis can be achieved using two 10× magnification stages and changing the focal plane of the secondary objective only slightly. A 10-micron shift in the specimen plane at 10× magnification image is achieved with a one-millimeter shift of the intermediate image plane.

Using a split focal plane approach allows two or more cameras (four are shown in the example of FIG. 16) to each collect a range of the focal depth of the specimen. In the limit the number of cameras is practically limited by the amount of light that can be brought to illuminate the specimen and the cost and complexity of the optical path. A system incorporating more cameras improves signal to noise, assuming that the cameras' well capacities are sufficiently close to full, and reduces the range that each image must deliver in field depth. A shorter field depth aids in producing better representation of high spatial frequencies in a resultant pseudo-projection.

In an example of this embodiment, shown in FIG. 16, an optical system comprises a primary objective 1302, first and second mirrors 1304A, 1304B, three beam-splitters 1303A-1303C, four primary tube lenses 1310, four secondary objective lenses 1312, four secondary tube lenses 1308, and four CCD cameras 1309. The primary objective 1302 and the primary tube lenses 1310 provide at least 10× magnification, and the secondary objectives and tube lenses provide at least an additional 10× magnification, for a total of at least 100× magnification.

Each ray path passes through two beam-splitter thicknesses, and each ray path undergoes either two or zero reflections, either through the beam-splitters or by the mirrors. The equivalence of the ray path-lengths through the beam-splitters means that the aberrations due to passing through the glass are equivalent. The number of reflections being always even (or always odd) means that all four images retain the same orientation at the image planes of the four cameras 1309. Space between first tube lens and secondary objective differs for each ray path, so that a different object plane is focused on each camera. A reduced range of motion or an extended depth is possible with focal plane scanning behind the objective and multiple camera focal planes.

Extending the multiple camera optics to greater than 20 focal planes can, in theory, sample a ten-micron depth of field every 500 nm. The arrangement of multiple cameras allows two simultaneous modalities of volumetric sampling that can each be used to contribute their relative strengths to a more accurate volumetric reconstruction. Specifically, the contrast generated by refractive and diffractive effects in the sample media interfaces may be sorted out from the purely absorptive effects and all data captured rapidly and without focal plane motion or rotational blur.

Wavefront Coded Optics

Referring now to FIG. 17, a schematic diagram of an OPTM system including wavefront coded optics is shown. As above, a microcapillary tube 1707 holds an object of interest 1701 and is rotated through various viewing angles as viewed by an objective lens 1703. Light transmitted through the objective lens 1703 impinges on wavefront coded optics 1705 which are located between the objective lens 1703 and an imaging camera 1707. The use of wavefront coded optics provides a method of pre-distorting the optical wavefront so that an object of interest is contained within an extended depth of field producing a low but consistent frequency response throughout its volume. Thus all focal planes, within a limited range along the optical axis, are equally defocused. This constitutes the wavefront coding. Wavefront coding elements are available from CDM Optics, Inc. (Boulder, Colo.), and are described in, for example, ER Dowski, “Wavefront coding optics,” U.S. Pat. No. 6,842,297 (2005).

The limit of wavefront coding is about a 12:1 improvement in the depth of field. For an optical tomography application such an improvement will provide about half of the required depth. Thus wavefront coding may advantageously be combined with one of the many other embodiments described herein to deliver a complete solution.

The point of the first contrast-reversal (MTF less than zero) occurs, for matched condenser and objective NA's, at 0.64 waves of defocus, as detailed in VN Mahajan, “Aberration Theory Made Simple” (Bellingham, Wash.: SPIE Press, 1991). This point is readily expressed in terms of the change in the optical depth, Δz, as

Δz=±1.28λn/(NA _(obj))²

where λ is the wavelength of the light being collected, n is the refractive index of the region between the objective lens and the object, and NA_(obj) is the numerical aperture of the objective lens. For λ=550 nm, n=1, and NA_(obj)=0.9, this distance is ΔZ=±0.87 microns. Then for a 12-micron-deep object, we require at least a 5× improvement in the depth of field to avoid contrast reversal at 6-micron defocus (roughly 4.4 waves of defocus).

Another embodiment of imaging with wavefront coding incorporates digital enhancement of the image with a complementary transfer function to boost the suppressed high frequency components to recover a sharply focused image while retaining the extended depth.

Another embodiment uses multiple cameras, such as is shown above, that take advantage of the wavefront coded optics approach to extended depth of field by coding each optical path with lens transfer function, thus extending the depth of field from one segment to the next. This mechanism allows for a single brief exposure such as a strobed illuminator to quickly sample a wide depth of field without mechanical motion.

The invention has been described herein in considerable detail in order to comply with the Patent Statutes and to provide those skilled in the art with the information needed to apply the novel principles of the present invention, and to construct and use such exemplary and specialized components as are required. However, it is to be understood that the invention may be carried out by specifically different equipment, and devices, and that various modifications, both as to the equipment details and operating procedures, may be accomplished without departing from the true spirit and scope of the present invention. 

1. An optical projection tomography system for imaging an object of interest, the optical projection tomography system comprising: (a) a light source; (b) an object-containing tube, a portion of which is located within the region illuminated by the light source, wherein the object of interest has at least one feature of interest located within the object-containing tube; (c) at least one detector, wherein the at least one detector is located to receive emerging radiation from the object of interest; and (d) at least one lens located in the optical path between the object region and the at least one detector, wherein the at least one lens includes at least one optical field extension element such that light rays from multiple object planes in the object-containing tube simultaneously focus on the at least one detector.
 2. The system of claim 1 wherein the object moves relatively to the at least one detector and the at least one lens operates to provide multiple views of the object region for producing at least one image of the at least one feature of interest at each view.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the object of interest comprises a biological cell.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein each of the multiple object planes that come to a focus on at least one of the at least one detectors registers light of a different optical wavelength on the at least one detector.
 5. The system of claim 1, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises an interval spanning the thickness of the object of interest.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the object of interest is stained to impart an absorption coefficient of at least one wavelength that registers on the at least one detector.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises an interval spanning the thickness of the diameter of the object-containing tube.
 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the system further comprises a chromatic filter array located between the at least one lens and the at least one detector.
 9. The system of claim 1, wherein the system further comprises a piezoelectric transducer coupled to the at least one lens for moving the at least one lens along an optical path between each of the multiple views of the object region, such that the object of interest remains within an interval spanned by the multiple object planes.
 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a wavefront-coded optical element located between the at least one lens and the at least one detector.
 11. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one detector comprises a detector selected from the group consisting of charge coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor devices, solid-state image sensors, and solid-state image sensor detector arrays.
 12. The system of claim 6, wherein the object of interest is stained with hematoxylin.
 13. The system of claim 1, wherein the light from multiple object planes includes light having a wavelength range of 550 nm to 620 nm spanning a focus interval of up to 50 microns.
 14. The system of claim 1, wherein the object-containing tube has a diameter of at least 50 microns.
 15. The system of claim 2, wherein the system further comprises a piezoelectric transducer attached to the at least one lens for moving the at least one lens along an optical path between each of the multiple views of the object region, such that the object of interest remains within the focus interval.
 16. The system of claim 1, wherein the system further comprises a chromatic filter array located between the at least one lens and the at least one detector.
 17. The system of claim 1, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises a focus interval of at least 12 microns.
 18. The system of claim 1, wherein the light from multiple object planes includes a wavelength range of 550 nm to 620 nm.
 19. The system of claim 1, further comprising a band pass filter for passing light in the range of 550 nm to 620 nm located to band limit light reaching the at least one detector.
 20. The system of claim 1, wherein the light source includes a chromatic filter located to filter light reaching the object-containing tube.
 21. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one lens comprises a hyperchromatic lens.
 22. An optical tomography system for viewing an object of interest comprising: a microcapillary tube viewing area for positioning the object of interest; at least one detector; a motor located to attach to and rotate a microcapillary tube; means for transmitting broadband light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 620 nm into the microcapillary tube viewing area; a hyperchromatic lens located to receive light transmitted through the microcapillary tube viewing area; and a tube lens located to focus light rays transmitted through the hyperchromatic lens, such that light rays from multiple object planes in the microcapillary tube viewing area simultaneously focus on the at least one detector.
 23. The system of claim 22, wherein the object of interest comprises a biological cell.
 24. The system of claim 22, wherein the hyperchromatic lens and the tube lens operate to simultaneously focus multiple object planes from the microcapillary tube viewing area on the at least one detector.
 25. The system of claim 24, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises an interval spanning the thickness of the biological cell.
 26. The system of claim 23, wherein the biological cell is stained to impart an absorption coefficient of at least one wavelength that registers on the at least one detector.
 27. The system of claim 23, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises an interval spanning the thickness of the microcapillary tube viewing area.
 28. The system of claim 22, wherein the system further comprises a chromatic filter array located between the hyperchromatic lens and the at least one detector.
 29. The system of claim 22, wherein the light from the multiple object planes includes light having a wavelength range of 550 nm to 620 nm spanning a focus interval of up to 50 microns.
 30. The system of claim 22, further comprising a chromatic filter array located between the hyperchromatic lens and the at least one detector, so that light coming to a focus on the detector is separated into two or more wavelength bands, each wavelength band being transmitted through the chromatic filter array to a separate set of pixels on the at least one detector.
 31. An optical tomography system for viewing all object of interest comprising: a microcapillary tube containing the object of interest; a motor, attached to the microcapillary tube, for rotating the microcapillary tube; a light source located to illuminate the microcapillary tube; a hyperchromatic lens located to receive light transmitted through the microcapillary tube; a dichroic beamsplitter located to split a plurality of ray paths originating in multiple object planes in the microcapillary tube as transmitted through the hyperchromatic lens; and at least two detectors, where a first detector of the at least two detectors is located to receive light transmitted along one of the plurality of ray paths, and a second detector of the at least two detectors is located to receive light transmitted along another of the plurality of ray paths, where light rays from the multiple object planes are simultaneously focused on at least one of the at least two detectors.
 32. The system of claim 31, wherein the system further comprises a piezoelectric transducer coupled to the hyperchromatic lens.
 33. The system of claim 31, wherein the object of interest comprises a biological cell.
 34. The system of claim 31, wherein each of the multiple object planes that come to a focus registers light of a different optical wavelength on at least one of the at least two detectors.
 35. The system of claim 31, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises an interval spanning the thickness of the object of interest.
 36. The system of claim 31, wherein the biological cell is stained to impart an absorption coefficient of at least one wavelength.
 37. The system of claim 31, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises an interval spanning the thickness of the microcapillary tube.
 38. The system of claim 31, wherein the system further comprises a chromatic filter array located between the hyperchromatic lens and each of the at least two detectors.
 39. The system of claim 36, wherein the object of interest is stained with hematoxylin.
 40. The system of claim 31, wherein the light from multiple object planes includes light having a wavelength range of 550 nm to 620 nm covering a focus interval of up to 50 microns.
 41. The system of claim 40, wherein the object-containing tube has a diameter of at least 50 microns.
 42. The system of claim 40, wherein an interval spanned by the multiple object planes comprises a focus interval of at least 12 microns.
 43. The system of claim 31, wherein the light from multiple object planes includes a wavelength range of 550 nm to 620 nm.
 44. The system of claim 31, further comprising a band pass filter for passing light in the range of 550 nm to 620 nm located to band limit light reaching the at least two detectors.
 45. The system of claim 31, wherein the light source includes a chromatic filter located to filter light reaching the object-containing tube.
 46. A method for finding a midpoint of a focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system, where the optical tomography system includes an objective lens with an optical axis and a rotating tube containing an object of interest, comprising: panning the objective lens along the optical axis to acquire multiple images of an object of interest; evaluating focus quality for each image; determining upper and lower boundaries of a focus invariance region; acquiring a pseudo-projection image, where the pseudo-projection's scanning range is centered between the upper and lower boundaries; and rotating the tube and repeating panning, evaluating and acquiring steps above until a plurality of pseudo-projections have been acquired at a plurality of projection angles.
 47. A method for computing a 3D reconstruction by finding a midpoint of a focus-invariant region in a focus-invariant optical tomography system, where the optical tomography system includes an objective lens with an optical axis and a microcapillary tube containing an object of interest, comprising: incrementally stepping the objective lens to focus at a plurality of focal planes and acquiring a plurality of pseudo-projections of the object of interest at a plurality of focal planes in the microcapillary tube; repeating until a limit condition on the range of focal planes is met; rotating the tube through a plurality of viewing angles and repeating the above steps of stepping and repeating until a limit condition on the range of focal planes is met for each viewing angle; for each viewing angle, summing the acquired pseudo-projections acquired at that viewing angle to generate a set of summed pseudo-projections; and computing a 3D reconstruction using the summed pseudo-projections.
 48. The method of claim 47 wherein the limit condition comprises meeting or exceeding the limit produced by the formula εnD=tube diam, where 0<ε<1 and n is an incremental step value.
 49. A method for applying a focus score to identify a pseudo-projection having the best focus, comprising: incrementally stepping the objective lens to focus at a plurality of focal planes and acquiring a plurality of pseudo-projections of the object of interest at a plurality of focal planes in the microcapillary tube; repeating until a limit condition on the range of focal planes is met; performing a 2.5-D focus evaluation to determine a best focus mapped to the current viewing angle; rotating the tube through a plurality of view angles and repeating the above steps of stepping and repeating for each viewing angle; for each viewing angle, summing the acquired pseudo-projections acquired at best focus for that viewing angle to generate a set of summed pseudo-projections; and computing a 3D reconstruction using the summed pseudo-projections.
 50. The method of claim 49 wherein the limit condition comprises meeting or exceeding the limit produced by the formula εnD=tube diam, where 0<ε<1 and n is an incremental step value.
 51. An autofocusing system comprising: a first autofocusing camera; a second autofocusing camera; an image comparator coupled to receive digitized input from the first and second autofocusing cameras, where the image comparator provides a feedback signal. a transducer drive coupled to receive the feedback signal; a microcapillary tube within a field of view of the first and second autofocusing cameras containing an object of interest, where the microcapillary tube is coupled to a rotation motor and separate images from an upper spectrum object volume and a lower spectrum object volume are captured by the first and second autofocusing cameras; where the separate images are compared and analyzed by the comparator that provides the feedback signal to drives the transducer drive which, in turn, controls an objective lens focus drive so that the focus range of an objective lens moves closer to a region of poorer focus quality, and when the difference in focus quality between the two images becomes sufficiently small, the transducer drive stops shifting the focus range; and an image camera located to receive images from the microcapillary tube.
 52. The autofocusing system of claim 51 further comprising a primary beam splitter; a secondary beam splitter; a mirror located to directing light rays to the second autofocusing camera; a first filter located to pass light rays from the primary beam splitter to the image camera through a first image forming lens; a second filter located to pass light rays from the secondary beam splitter directed to be first autofocusing camera through a second imaging lens; and a third filter located to direct light rays from the mirror through a third imaging lens to the second autofocusing camera.
 53. The autofocusing system of claim 52 wherein the first filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 620 nm.
 54. The autofocusing system of claim 52 wherein the second filter passes light having wavelengths between 585 nm and 620 nm.
 55. The autofocusing system of claim 52 wherein the third filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 585 nm.
 56. An autofocusing system comprising: a source of spectrally uniform light illumination located to illuminate an object of interest within a field of view of an image camera in line with an objective lens positioned to view an object of interest; a primary beam splitter; a secondary beam splitter; a mirror; a first filter located to pass light rays from the primary beam splitter to the image camera through a first image forming lens; a second filter optically aligned with the secondary beam splitter; a third filter optically aligned with the mirror; a first Fourier plane forming lens located to transmit light from the second filter through a first Fourier plane spatial filter to a first photo sensor; a second Fourier plane forming lens located to transmit light from the third filter through a second Fourier plane spatial filter to a second photo sensor; where the first and second Fourier spatial filters provide analog feedback to a focus control controller through the first and second photo-diodes, further where the high frequency content of upper and lower portions of the focal range respectively, is compared in a signal conditioning and difference amplification processor and the signal conditioning and difference amplification processor provides an output which is used to a drive connected to control the objective lens position.
 57. The autofocusing system of claim 56 wherein the first filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 nm and 620 nm.
 58. The autofocusing system of claim 56, wherein the second filter passes light having wavelengths between 585 nm and 620 nm.
 59. The autofocusing system of claim 56 wherein the third filter passes light having wavelengths between 550 and 585 nm
 60. A 2.5-dimensional image analysis method for optical tomography using focus-invariant optics comprising: identifying features, G_(i)=G₁, . . . G_(Ω) in image stack S_(k); for each feature G₁, identify pixels of best focus X_(i), Y_(i), Z_(i) in S_(k); generating a blank composite image PP_(k); adding intensity values of X_(i), Y_(i), Z_(i) to intensity values of pixels X_(i), Y_(i) in PP_(k) repeating for all features (G₁, G₂ . . . G_(Ω)) until all features have been incorporated into PP_(k); and repeating for multiple perspectives.
 61. The method of claim 60, wherein the focus-invariant optics include a 4-color CFA, the method further comprising processing each 2×2 block of a 4-color CFA by selecting pixels containing the best focus.
 62. The method of claim 60, wherein the focus-invariant optics include a 4-color CPA including a plurality of 2×2 blocks, the method further comprising processing each 2×2 block of a 4-color CFA using a weighted sum of two or more pixels.
 63. The method of claim 60, wherein the focus-invariant optics include a PFA including a plurality of 2×2 blocks, the method further comprising processing each 2×2 block of a PFA by selecting pixels containing the best focus.
 64. The method of claim 60, wherein the focus-invariant optics include a PFA including a plurality of 2×2 blocks, the method further comprising processing each 2×2 block of a PFA using a weighted sum of two or more pixels.
 65. A folded system for optical tomography comprising: an objective lens for transmitting collimated light; a first dichroic beam-splitting cube located downstream from the objective lens to split the collimated light transmitted by the objective lens into a first arm and a second arm; the first arm has a wavelength λ1 and originates in a first focal plane; a first tube lens is positioned to transmit the first arm through second beam-splitter cube, and onto a first region of the camera sensor's active area; the second arm has a wavelength λ2 and originates in a second focal plane; first and second mirrors positioned to pass the second arm through a tube lens after reflecting within a second dichroic beam-splitter cube and onto a second region of a camera sensor's active area, whereby the first region and the second region of the camera acquire focused images originating from different focal planes in object space.
 66. The system of claim 65 where a relative lateral shift in images is achieved by laterally shifting the second dichroic beam-splitter cube, so that the reflected light of the second arm is laterally shifted relative to the first arm and to the first tube lens.
 67. A multiple camera system for optical tomography comprising: a primary objective lens; first and second mirrors located to receive light transmitted through the primary objective lens; at least three beam-splitters located to direct light along different ray paths; at least four primary tube lenses, each located along one of the ray paths; at least four secondary objective lenses, each located along one of the ray paths; at least four secondary tube lenses, each located along one of the ray paths; and at least four cameras each located along one of the ray paths, where space between one of the at least four primary tube lenses and one of the at least four secondary objective lenses differs for each ray path, so that a different object plane is focused on each of the at least four cameras.
 68. The system of claim 67 wherein images acquired by the at least four cameras retain the same orientation at the image planes of the at least four cameras.
 69. The system of claim 67 where the primary objective lens and the at least four primary tube lenses provide at least 10× magnification, and the secondary objectives and tube lenses provide at least and additional 10× magnification.
 70. A multiple camera system for optical tomography comprising: a primary objective lens; first and second mirrors located to receive light transmitted through the primary objective lens; at least three beam-splitters located to direct light along different ray paths; at least four primary tube lenses, each located along one of the ray paths; at least four secondary objective lenses, each located along one of the ray paths; at least four secondary tube lenses, each located along one of the ray paths; at least four cameras, each located along one of the ray paths; and wavefront coded optics positioned between the primary objective lens and the at least four cameras so that a different object plane is focused on each of the at least four cameras.
 71. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one optical field extension element comprises a polarizing filter array located between the at least one lens and the at least one detector.
 72. The system of claim 1, wherein the at least one optical field extension element comprises a wavefront-coding element located between the hyperchromatic lens and each of the at least two detectors.
 73. The system of claim 1, wherein each of the multiple object planes that come to a focus on the at least one detector is formed by light having a different polarization.
 74. An optical projection tomography method for imaging an object of interest, the optical projection tomography method comprising: (a) illuminating an object of interest; and (b) simultaneously focusing light rays from multiple object planes in the object of interest onto at least one detector for plurality of different views.
 75. The method of claim 74 further comprising filtering the light rays to pass only light rays having wavelengths within the range of 550 nm to 620 nm.
 76. The method of claim 75 wherein the filtering further comprises passing the light through a band pass filter located to limit light reaching at least one detector.
 77. The method of claim 74 further comprising delivering the object of interest for imaging from an object containing tube; wherein the object containing tube comprises a tube selected from the group consisting of a capillary tube, a microcapillary tub, a microcapillary tube bundle, and a microcapillary tube cassette.
 78. The method of claim 77 wherein the object containing tube has a diameter of at least 50 microns.
 79. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing comprises moving at least one lens of a hyperchromatic lens system relative to at least one detector.
 80. The method of claim 74 further comprising splitting a first plurality of light ray paths via a beamsplitter.
 81. The method of claim 74 wherein the simultaneous focusing comprises focusing a hyperchromatic lens.
 82. The method of claim 79 wherein the simultaneous focusing further comprises filtering the light by transmitting the light through at least one chromatic filter array.
 83. The method of claim 74 wherein the at least one detector comprises a detector selected from the group consisting of charge coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor devices, solid-state image sensors, and solid-state image sensor detector arrays.
 84. The method of claim 82, further comprising locating the at least one chromatic filter array between the hyperchromatic lens and the at least one detector, so that light coming to a focus on the detector is separated into two or more wavelength bands, each wavelength band being transmitted through the chromatic filter array to a separate set of pixels on the least one detector.
 85. The method of claim 82, wherein the at least one chromatic filter array is substituted with at least one polarization filter array.
 86. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing of the multiple object planes comprises extending focusing through a focus interval spanning the thickness of the object of interest.
 87. The method of claim 74, wherein the simultaneously focusing of the multiple object planes comprises extending focusing through a focus interval of at least 12 microns.
 88. The method of claim 74, wherein the simultaneously focusing of the multiple object planes comprises extending focusing through a focus interval of up to 50 microns.
 89. The method of claim 74 further comprising impinging the light rays onto a wave front-coded optical element.
 90. The method of claim 74, further comprising staining the object of interest to impart an absorption coefficient of at least one wavelength.
 91. The method of claim 90, wherein the staining of the object of interest is performed with hematoxylin.
 92. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing of the multiple object planes comprises simultaneously focusing with an autofocusing system.
 93. The method of claim 89, wherein the simultaneously focusing with an autofocusing system comprises focusing using chromatic balance.
 94. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing light rays comprises transmitting the light rays through a polarizing filter array.
 95. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing light rays comprises transmitting the light rays through a wavefront-coding element.
 96. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing light rays comprises focusing each of the multiple object planes on the at least one detector by light having a different polarization.
 97. The method of claim 74, wherein simultaneously focusing light rays comprises performing a 2.5-D focus evaluation to determine a best focus.
 98. The method of claim 74, wherein the object of interest comprises a biological cell. 